Lesson 3 NATURAL DISASTER ASSISTANCE AND REFUGEE OPERATIONS

Learning Activities: Read this lesson. Review in detail Table 3A: Disaster Assistance Program Models.

Evaluation: Complete the self-assessment test, compare your answers to the answer key found in a separate document in this directory.

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INTRODUCTION

When most people think of disasters, they imagine voluntary agencies or the Red Cross or Red Crescent providing emergency relief materials and aid to disaster victims. While this image is, in part, correct, it depicts only a portion of the assistance that is provided and the manner in which it is delivered. In this chapter we will explore the full range of disaster assistance and identify the types of organizations and the way in which disaster assistance is (or should be) provided. It is important to know what type of organizations are normally assigned disaster responsibilities and the specific organizations that become involved in each time phase.

NATURAL DISASTER: GOVERNMENT'S ROLE

The ultimate responsibility for coping with natural disasters lies with the national government of the affected country. Responsibility for disaster mitigation is usually assigned to a government ministry. For example, mitigation activities for drought would normally be assigned to an agricultural ministry, while mitigation and preparedness activities for earthquakes would typically be assigned to a housing or public works ministry.

Preparedness planning is usually carried out by an interministerial committee or by a unit of government that specializes in planning and coordination. The latter may be a specially created preparedness group or it may be an existing planning group such as a central planning office.

During an emergency the disaster preparedness authorities may assume responsibility for coordination of emergency activities, or a new emergency committee may be established. Depending on the type of disaster, however, operational responsibilities will again usually be assigned to one or more ministries, usually those with some degree of operational capacity or with special equipment required for the emergency period. For example, public works departments, which have trucks and engineering equipment, are often assigned lead responsibility during floods, while public health departments are usually assigned lead responsibility during famines or epidemics. During the post- emergency phases and especially during reconstruction, operational responsibility may be shifted to another government ministry or combination of ministries. If the disaster has been particularly destructive or widespread, special regional agencies may sometimes be formed with staff seconded from the normal ministries. These regional agencies tend to remain in existence for about one to five years. They are then disbanded and the personnel return to their former jobs.

NATURAL DISASTERS: FOREIGN ASSISTANCE PETTERNS

Donor governments and international voluntary organizations render foreign assistance when the disaster relief and recovery requirements exceed the resources available in the affected country. The assistance patterns vary according to the phase and the type of disaster. While many development agencies participate in development activities that might mitigate disasters, few would see this as their primary role. Likewise, few participate in disaster preparedness planning.

During the emergency phase, nongovernmental organizations often become prominent in dispensing emergency relief. This is because of their flexibility and inherent ability to respond quickly to an emergency. In general, nongovernmental organizations should usually be regarded as specialized service agencies; that is, they have special skills or interests that are generally sector- focused. They usually provide assistance for only limited periods of time, primarily during the emergency and rehabilitation phase. Since their funding is dependent on public support and interest in a particular disaster. Voluntary agencies tend to work in person-to-person types of activities and generally prefer to do small-scale, short-term projects rather than long-term activities that require large capital expenditures. In order to make the most of scarce resources, governments often prefer to turn over large segments of humanitarian efforts to these agencies so that government resources can be channeled into longer term, and more expansive recovery activities. Because voluntary agencies work directly with the disaster victims, they tend to be highly visible. Yet their overall responsibilities are fairly limited.

During reconstruction, development agencies (both VOLAGS and intergovernmental agencies) may also become involved. This is because many of the reconstruction activities involve development work, and many agencies recognize that the reconstruction period offers opportunities for advancing development goals.

Major foreign governments usually have a greater interest in disaster mitigation and preparedness than nongovernmental agencies. Most of the work in these activities has been stimulated by government donor agencies responsible for disaster aid. The Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA) of the Agency for International Development is an example. Foreign governments usually provide bilateral assistance directly to the host government and may provide technical assistance for planning, or financial assistance in implementation.

When a disaster occurs, foreign governments may provide assistance through several different methods. These include bilateral assistance to the government for general support or for specific projects and multilateral assistance through organizations such as the United Nations or various regional groups. They may also fund voluntary agencies to conduct specific projects.

The pattern of aid established during the emergency will usually carry over into reconstruction, but emphasis on voluntary agencies is generally replaced with more bilateral assistance directly to the government and its ministries. Technical assistance for project administration and planning is also a popular form of aid.

The United Nations system is another major source of international aid for disasters. The United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), and the United Nations Center for Housing and Human Settlements (HABITAT) are the principal U.N. agencies actively engaged in disaster-prevention programs.

Preparedness activities fall under the domain of the United Nations Disaster Relief Office (UNDRO). UNDRO normally works through the UNDP resident representative (Resrep) in each country to provide planning assistance for disaster preparedness. This assistance is usually in the form of technical assistance and studies designed to help the government structure its emergency response.

During an emergency many different United Nations agencies may respond. UNDRO often sends a representative to help coordinate foreign donations. Acting on a government's request, UNDRO may stay on for several weeks to report on emergency needs and respond to those needs by external donors.

The United Nations specialized agencies may also respond with emergency assistance. UNICEF often initiates programs for women and children, and in droughts the World Food Program (WFP) provides emergency rations to augment available food supplies. UNHCR will sometimes assist the victims of natural disasters if they happen to be refugees or if drought victims are forced to leave their homeland in search of assistance. Most emergency assistance is provided as "project aid" by the U.N. agency using its own staff and locally hired personnel. The United Nations agencies have tremendous logistical capabilities and can undertake emergency projects on a vast scale.

During the post-emergency phases, the United Nations development agencies often take a lead role. The FAO is usually very active in agricultural recovery activities while UNDP and HABITAT become involved in physical reconstruction of houses and basic infrastructure. Assistance in the later phases, however, is usually in the form of cash and technical assistance, not operational projects.

The Red Cross system (or Red Crescent in Moslem countries) can also bring many resources to bear in an emergency. The Red Cross/Red Crescent Society in each country is usually chartered by the government and given semi-official status. Each national society, in turn, belongs to the international League of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (LRCS) to which they can turn for additional foreign assistance should it be required.

The Red Cross/Red Crescent is primarily concerned with emergency operations. The vast majority of their activities involve preparing for and responding to an emergency. Ideally, the national society will have many regional and local chapters, all of which have undergone some form of emergency training. In many cases, these are supported by a system of national emergency supplies that can be quickly augmented from international stockpiles maintained by the LRCS or obtained from its member societies through its international disaster appeals.

Because the primary focus is on emergency humanitarian assistance, most of the aid provided is "in kind" or materials. The LRCS also provides technical assistance to national societies in preparedness planning and emergency response management.

Worldwide, there are more than 1,000 different nongovernment, privately funded organizations that might respond to a disaster. These groups, known as private voluntary organizations (PVOs or VOLAGS for short) operate at both an international and local level to obtain funds and supplies for disaster victims. Most VOLAGS work on a person-to-person basis and focus their efforts on low-income families and communities. Some VOLAGS deal exclusively with disasters. These are considered "relief" organizations. Others focus more on development and work in disasters only when one strikes where the agency has a program in operation.*

Among the better known VOLAGS are CARE, Caritas, Catholic Relief Services, Church World Service, OXFAM, the Salvation Army, the various national organizations of Save the Children and Terre des Hommes, Medicins sans Frontieres, Christian Aid, Lutheran World Relief, and World Vision.

The resources they command give them an influential role in any operation in which they participate, and one or the other is involved in almost every country in the Third World.

Many NGOs at the local level provide assistance; and consortia, such as the various National Christian Councils, can often mobilize substantial resources. Some agencies have their own programs administered by a professional staff, supplemented in disasters by volunteers. Others operate through local counterpart organizations, though in a few cases they do have their own programs. Their interests are not restricted to any one sector. VOLAGS have entered housing, agriculture, small business, and many other fields, both in normal and in post- disaster times.

REFUGEE OPERATIONS

The patterns of assistance for refugee operations vary greatly from those of natural disasters. Under international protocol, the responsibility for the protection of refugees in the country of first asylum is assigned to the host country, but at their request this responsibility may be transferred to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) or to another international organization. Thus, in a refugee operation, the primary emphasis is usually on protection, assistance, and direct aid provided to the refugees by outside organizations. This is an important distinction. Rather than helping a local government to expand its capabilities to deal with a natural emergency, refugee operations try to ease the burden and responsibility of the host government. How much of this burden will be taken over by foreign assistance depends on many factors, especially on how long the refugees remain in the country of first asylum.

In reality, there is almost no pre-disaster planning for refugee operations. What little planning does take place usually occurs in the few days, or even hours, before the refugees arrive. The host government normally assigns a government task force, the military, or in some cases, an operational agency of the government, to oversee and coordinate relief operations.**

Once the refugees begin crossing the border, the United Nations system, the League of Red Cross/Red Crescent Societies (LRCS) and/or the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), an independent Swiss organization established to deal with war victims, swing into action. The United Nations system is usually responsible for protection and coordination of assistance, while the LRCS or ICRC is responsible for humanitarian aid in the immediate vicinity of the conflict area or in a zone near the border. International voluntary agencies are usually available to assist in providing specialized services to the refugees. In many countries the U.N. agency becomes the coordinating agency for all international aid.1

During the emergency period, voluntary agencies may work in a variety of roles. The U.N. has often requested VOLAGS with special skills or capabilities to assist in various field operations including processing and delivery of humanitarian assistance in refugee camps. UNHCR especially prefers to use VOLAGS as implementing partners in operational matters.

After the emergency, refugee support operations tend to become long, drawn out affairs. Many refugees remain in the country of first asylum for a decade or more. In some cases, host governments choose to allow the refugees to establish small settlements and farms so that they can help support themselves, but in many countries the refugees are forced to remain in camps while long-term, permanent solutions are sought. During the long interim period, referred to as the "maintenance phase,"** disaster managers have often found themselves working in what would otherwise be considered development work. Activities have included settlement planning, housing construction, water resource development, agricultural extension, and public health and nutrition work.

The primary objective of refugee assistance is to find a permanent or durable solution to the refugee's plight. The three solutions are voluntary repatriation (returning to their homeland), settlement in the country of first asylum, or resettlement in a third country. A key problem for disaster managers is how to provide assistance and protection to refugees in such a way that promotes, not hinders, the development of durable solutions.

ASSISTANCE MODELS

The term "victim" is nonspecific. It encompasses everyone affected and obscures the reality that each disaster affects a specific group in a population more than others. Earthquakes affect people living in poor quality, nonengineered houses. In every type of disaster, specific groups of potential "primary victims"*** can be identified (columns 1 and 2 of Table 3-A). The characteristics of these groups provide a key to determining the kind of assistance that is appropriate during each phase of a disaster. These characteristics also give an indication about how to deliver the assistance.

Table 3-A Disaster Assistance Program Models

Type of Primary Predisaster Emergency Post- disaster Disaster Victims Assistance Relief Models Assistance Models Models

1 2 3 4 5

Droughts Farmers Agricultural Alternative Agricultural extension, Income food extension, water land reform resource development, land reform

Herdsmen Husbandry Emergency Husbandry extension fodder extension distribution

Nomads Husbandry Relocation Husbandry extension and mass extension

Earthquakes Persons in Housing Economic Housing low-quality education to assistance, education to housing public & material aid public & contractors contractors, urban land

reform

Famine Women, small Nutrition Selective Nutrition children and education, feeding, education, elderly home selective gardening, general feeding, home food rations, gardening, preservation food & storage horticultural preservation education extension education

Floods Farmers, Planning, Evacuation Planning, urban land reform, and mass care land reform, squatters housing housing education, education, watershed watershed management management

Hurricanes Farmers, Agricultural Economic Agricultural occupants of extension, assistance, extension low quality housing material aid housing housing education, education, land reform, land reform, watershed watershed and management coastal zone

management

Insect Farmers Agricultural Agricultural Agricultural infestation extension extension extension

Epidemics Small Immunization, Medical Immunization, children environmental relief environmental sanitation sanitation

Disaster assistance deals with two types of aid: relief, which is designed to reduce suffering and replace losses; and long-term assistance, which might be called "change-related" aid. The objective of the latter is to encourage people to change their normal habits or practices in order to reduce their vulnerability to a disaster or to make sure that a disaster does not recur.

Knowledge of the characteristics of the victims enables us to plan for both types of assistance. Relief is the easiest. Droughts can again provide an example. Farmers, especially marginal, subsistence farmers, will be prominent primary victims. In an emergency they and their families will need food and alternative sources of income until they can replant and harvest a normal crop. Therefore, the relief program must have a feeding component and a long-term assistance component; the latter, in the form of social services, will help the families find other means of supporting themselves until the emergency has passed and they can replant.

Knowing that primary victims will be farmers also helps us to plan disaster mitigation and reconstruction programs. Both activities require that people change some aspect of their normal way of doing things. In the disaster context, change can be brought about in one of three ways: through public awareness, in other words providing people with information so that they will act on their own; through legal measures, i.e., forcing people to change by law; or through extension and education, i.e., demonstrating and teaching alternative methods and encouraging their implementation by means of a variety of services.

If we know that the target audience will consist of farmers, mitigation measures will involve changing crops, cropping patterns, or agricultural practices. This will require demonstrations, technical assistance, and extensive people-to- people contact. We also know that public awareness and legal methods will have little impact on changing agricultural patterns; therefore, the assistance model for mitigation and reconstruction must be based on extension and education.

Table 3-A identifies the primary victims in several types of disaster and lists the disaster assistance program models that can be used in each case. Comparison of column 3 "Pre-Disaster Assistance Models" and column 5 "Post-Disaster Assistance Models" shows that both borrow heavily from normal development methodology. By understanding these links, disaster managers will be more effective participants in both disaster and development activities.

1 "The Potential Contribution of Peace Corps to Disaster Preparedness in Africa," INTERECT.

NOTES

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Self-Assessment Test: Lesson 3

Multiple Choice Circle the correct answer(s):

1. Disaster mitigation can be accomplished using: a. public information b. legal measures c. education d. people-to-people contact e. a, b and c only

2. During the post-emergency phase, which United Nations agencies take lead roles? a. UNDP b. FAO c. UNDRO d. HABITAT e. They all take lead roles

True/False Indicate T or F:

_____ 3. Mitigation and preparedness activities for earthquakes are generally assigned to the agriculture ministry.

_____ 4. Relief agencies assisting refugees during the maintenance phase should only provide for daily needs and disregard long-term redevelopment.

_____ 5. In a refugee operation the primary emphasis is usually on protection, assistance, and direct aid provided by outside organizations.

_____ 6. Most preparedness activities fall under the domain of the United Nations Disaster Relief Office (UNDRO).

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This publication was prepared by the Disaster Management Center at the University of Wisconsin-Madison with financial support from the U.S. Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance, United States Agency for International Development (OFDA/USAID).

Copyright (c) 1986 by University of Wisconsin Board of Regents Second Edition (c) 1991

For permission to reprint, contact:

Disaster Management Center Department of Engineering Professional Development University of Wisconsin-Madison 432 North Lake Street Madison, WI 53706 U.S.A.

Direct policy inquiries to Affirmative Action Programs, 432 N. Lake Street, Madison, Wisconsin 53706. UW-Extension provides equal opportunities in employment and programming, including Title IX requirements. _________________________________________________________________

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For additional information or to register for credit, please write Julie Seehafer, Department of Engineering Professional Development, Correspondence Course Office, University of Wisconsin, 432 North Lake Street, Madison, WI 53706. Or by e- mail to is@epd.engr.wisc.edu, fax at 608/263-3160, toll-free phone at 800/462-0876 or direct phone at 608/262-1735

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Course C280 AA02b, Aim and Scope of Disaster Management

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